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Historical period and socio-cultural norm or attitude

Modernity, a topic in the humanities and social sciences, is both a historical catamenia (the modern era) and the ensemble of particular socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of the Renaissance—in the "Age of Reason" of 17th-century idea and the 18th-century "Enlightenment". Some commentators consider the era of modernity to have ended by 1930, with Earth State of war II in 1945, or the 1980s or 1990s; the following era is chosen postmodernity. The term "contemporary history" is also used to refer to the post-1945 timeframe, without assigning it to either the modern or postmodern era. (Thus "mod" may exist used equally a name of a particular era in the by, as opposed to meaning "the current era".)

Depending on the field, "modernity" may refer to unlike time periods or qualities. In historiography, the 17th and 18th centuries are usually described equally early on modern, while the long 19th century corresponds to "modern history" proper. While information technology includes a wide range of interrelated historical processes and cultural phenomena (from fashion to modern warfare), it can also refer to the subjective or existential experience of the atmospheric condition they produce, and their ongoing impact on human being culture, institutions, and politics.^[1]

As an analytical concept and normative thought, modernity is closely linked to the ethos of philosophical and aesthetic modernism; political and intellectual currents that intersect with the Enlightenment; and subsequent developments such as existentialism, mod art, the formal establishment of social science, and contemporaneous antithetical developments such equally Marxism. It also encompasses the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism, and shifts in attitudes associated with secularisation, liberalization, modernization and post-industrial life.^[1]

By the belatedly 19th and 20th centuries, modernist fine art, politics, science and civilisation has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but most every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the West and globalization. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism,^[2] commercialism,^[three] urbanization^[2] and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress.^[4] ^[5] Wars and other perceived problems of this era, many of which come from the furnishings of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, accept led to many reactions against modern evolution.^[6] ^[vii] Optimism and belief in constant progress has been most recently criticized by postmodernism while the dominance of Western Europe and Anglo-America over other continents has been criticized by postcolonial theory.

In the context of fine art history, "modernity" (modernité) has a more than express sense, "modern art" covering the catamenia of c. 1860–1970. Use of the term in this sense is attributed to Charles Baudelaire, who in his 1864 essay "The Painter of Modern Life", designated the "fleeting, imperceptible feel of life in an urban metropolis", and the responsibility art has to capture that experience. In this sense, the term refers to "a particular relationship to time, one characterized by intense historical discontinuity or rupture, openness to the novelty of the hereafter, and a heightened sensitivity to what is unique nearly the present".^[8]

Etymology [edit]

The Late Latin adjective modernus, a derivation from the adverb modo "presently, but now", is attested from the 5th century, at offset in the context of distinguishing the Christian era from the pagan era. In the 6th century, Cassiodorus appears to accept been the first writer to use modernus "modern" regularly to refer to his own historic period.^[9] The terms antiquus and modernus were used in a chronological sense in the Carolingian era. For example, a magister modernus referred to a contemporary scholar, as opposed to erstwhile authorities such every bit Benedict of Nursia. In early medieval usage, modernus referred to government younger than infidel antiquity and the early church fathers, but not necessarily to the present day, and could include authors several centuries old, from about the time of Bede, i.east. referring to the time after the foundation of the Order of Saint Benedict and/or the fall of the Western Roman Empire.^[10]

The Latin describing word was adopted in Middle French, as moderne, by the 15th century, and hence, in the early Tudor period, into Early on Modern English. The early modern discussion meant "now existing", or "pertaining to the present times", not necessarily with a positive connotation. Shakespeare uses modernistic in the sense of "every-mean solar day, ordinary, commonplace".

The word entered wide usage in the context of the tardily 17th-century quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns inside the Académie française, debating the question of "Is Modern culture superior to Classical (Græco–Roman) civilisation?" In the context of this debate, the "ancients" (anciens) and "moderns" (modernes) were proponents of opposing views, the quondam believing that contemporary writers could exercise no improve than imitate the genius of classical antiquity, while the latter, get-go with Charles Perrault (1687), proposed that more a mere "Renaissance" of ancient achievements, the "Age of Reason" had gone beyond what had been possible in the classical period. The term modernity, offset coined in the 1620s, in this context assumed the implication of a historical epoch following the Renaissance, in which the achievements of artifact were surpassed.^[11]

Phases [edit]

Modernity has been associated with cultural and intellectual movements of 1436–1789 and extending to the 1970s or after.^[12]

Co-ordinate to Marshall Berman,^[xiii] modernity is periodized into three conventional phases dubbed "Early," "Classical," and "Late" by Peter Osborne:^[14]

Early modernity: 1500–1789 (or 1453–1789 in traditional historiography)
- People were commencement to experience a more modern life (Laughey, 31).
Classical modernity: 1789–1900 (respective to the long 19th century (1789–1914) in Hobsbawm'due south scheme)
- Consisted of the rise and growing use of daily newspapers, telegraphs, telephones and other forms of mass media, which influenced the growth of communicating on a broader scale (Laughey, 31).
Late modernity: 1900–1989
- Consisted of the globalization of modern life (Laughey, 31).

In the 2d phase, Berman draws upon the growth of modern technologies such as the newspaper, telegraph and other forms of mass media. There was a great shift into modernization in the proper noun of industrial capitalism. Finally in the third phase, modernist arts and individual creativity marked the outset of a new modernist age as it combats oppressive politics, economics as well equally other social forces including mass media.^[xv] ^{[ citation needed ]}

Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard,^{[ citation needed ]} believe that modernity ended in the mid- or late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely Postmodernity (1930s/1950s/1990s–present). Other theorists, all the same, regard the menses from the late 20th century to the present every bit but some other stage of modernity; Zygmunt Bauman^[xvi] calls this stage "liquid" modernity, Giddens labels it "high" modernity (see High modernism).^[17]

Definition [edit]

Political [edit]

Politically, modernity'south earliest phase starts with Niccolò Machiavelli's works which openly rejected the medieval and Aristotelian fashion of analyzing politics by comparison with ideas virtually how things should be, in favour of realistic analysis of how things really are. He besides proposed that an aim of politics is to control i's own chance or fortune, and that relying upon providence actually leads to evil. Machiavelli argued, for example, that tearing divisions inside political communities are unavoidable, merely tin also be a source of strength which lawmakers and leaders should account for and even encourage in some ways.^[18]

Machiavelli's recommendations were sometimes influential upon kings and princes, but eventually came to exist seen as favoring gratuitous republics over monarchies.^[nineteen] Machiavelli in turn influenced Francis Salary,^[20] Marchamont Needham,^[21] James Harrington,^[21] John Milton,^[22] David Hume.,^[23] and many others ^[24]

Important modern political doctrines which stalk from the new Machiavellian realism include Mandeville's influential proposal that "Individual Vices past the dextrous Direction of a skilful Pol may be turned into Publick Benefits" (the last sentence of his Fable of the Bees), and also the doctrine of a ramble "separation of powers" in government, first clearly proposed by Montesquieu. Both these principles are enshrined within the constitutions of nearly modern democracies. It has been observed that while Machiavelli's realism saw a value to war and political violence, his lasting influence has been "tamed" so that useful conflict was deliberately converted equally much as possible to formalized political struggles and the economical "conflict" encouraged betwixt free, private enterprises.^[25] ^[26]

Starting with Thomas Hobbes, attempts were fabricated to utilise the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed past Bacon and Descartes, practical to humanity and politics.^[27] Notable attempts to ameliorate upon the methodological approach of Hobbes include those of John Locke,^[28] Spinoza,^[29] Giambattista Vico, ^[30] and Rousseau.^[31] David Hume fabricated what he considered to be the first proper endeavour at trying to apply Bacon'southward scientific method to political subjects,^[32] rejecting some aspects of the approach of Hobbes.

Modernist republicanism openly influenced the foundation of republics during the Dutch Revolt (1568–1609),^[33] English language Civil State of war (1642–1651),^[21] American Revolution (1775–1783),^[34] the French Revolution (1789–1799), and the Haitian revolution (1791–1804).^[35]

A second phase of modernist political thinking begins with Rousseau, who questioned the natural rationality and sociality of humanity and proposed that human nature was much more malleable than had been previously thought. Past this logic, what makes a good political organisation or a good man is completely dependent upon the chance path a whole people has taken over history. This thought influenced the political (and aesthetic) thinking of Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke and others and led to a critical review of modernist politics. On the conservative side, Burke argued that this understanding encouraged caution and avoidance of radical change. Nevertheless more aggressive movements also adult from this insight into homo civilisation, initially Romanticism and Historicism, and eventually both the Communism of Karl Marx, and the modern forms of nationalism inspired by the French Revolution, including, in 1 extreme, the German Nazi movement.^[36]

On the other paw, the notion of modernity has been contested likewise due to its Euro-centric underpinnings. This is farther aggravated by the re-emergence of non-Western powers. Nonetheless, the contestations about modernity are also linked with Western notions of democracy, social discipline, and evolution.^[37]

Sociological [edit]

In folklore, a field of study that arose in directly response to the social problems of "modernity",^[38] the term most generally refers to the social conditions, processes, and discourses consequent to the Age of Enlightenment. In the most basic terms, Anthony Giddens describes modernity as

...a shorthand term for modern order, or industrial civilization. Portrayed in more detail, it is associated with (1) a sure fix of attitudes towards the globe, the idea of the world every bit open to transformation, by human intervention; (2) a circuitous of economic institutions, especially industrial production and a market economy; (3) a certain range of political institutions, including the nation-country and mass democracy. Largely equally a event of these characteristics, modernity is vastly more dynamic than any previous type of social social club. Information technology is a society—more technically, a complex of institutions—which, dissimilar any preceding culture, lives in the future, rather than the past.^[39]

Other writers have criticized such definitions as just being a listing of factors. They fence that modernity, contingently understood every bit marked by an ontological germination in dominance, needs to be defined much more fundamentally in terms of dissimilar means of being.

The mod is thus defined past the way in which prior valences of social life ... are reconstituted through a constructivist reframing of social practices in relation to basic categories of beingness common to all humans: time, space, embodiment, performance and knowledge. The discussion 'reconstituted' here explicitly does non mean replaced.^[40]

This means that modernity overlays earlier formations of traditional and customary life without necessarily replacing them.

Cultural and philosophical [edit]

The era of modernity is characterised socially by industrialisation and the division of labour and philosophically by "the loss of certainty, and the realization that certainty tin can never be established, once and for all".^[eleven] With new social and philosophical conditions arose fundamental new challenges. Various 19th-century intellectuals, from Auguste Comte to Karl Marx to Sigmund Freud, attempted to offer scientific and/or political ideologies in the wake of secularisation. Modernity may be described as the "historic period of credo."^[41]

For Marx, what was the basis of modernity was the emergence of capitalism and the revolutionary bourgeoisie, which led to an unprecedented expansion of productive forces and to the creation of the globe market. Durkheim tackled modernity from a different angle by following the ideas of Saint-Simon about the industrial system. Although the starting point is the aforementioned every bit Marx, feudal club, Durkheim emphasizes far less the rising of the bourgeoisie as a new revolutionary class and very seldom refers to capitalism as the new mode of production implemented by information technology. The fundamental impulse to modernity is rather industrialism accompanied by the new scientific forces. In the work of Max Weber, modernity is closely associated with the processes of rationalization and disenchantment of the world.^[42]

Disquisitional theorists such every bit Theodor Adorno and Zygmunt Bauman propose that modernity or industrialization represents a deviation from the central tenets of the Enlightenment and towards nefarious processes of alienation, such as commodity fetishism and the Holocaust.^[43] ^{[ page needed ]} ^[44] Gimmicky sociological critical theory presents the concept of "rationalization" in even more than negative terms than those Weber originally defined. Processes of rationalization—every bit progress for the sake of progress—may in many cases have what critical theory says is a negative and dehumanising issue on modern gild.^[43] ^{[ page needed ]} ^[45]

Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the accelerate of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fright and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates nether the sign of disaster triumphant.^[46]

What prompts then many commentators to speak of the 'cease of history', of mail service-modernity, 'second modernity' and 'surmodernity', or otherwise to articulate the intuition of a radical change in the arrangement of homo cohabitation and in social conditions under which life-politics is nowadays conducted, is the fact that the long try to accelerate the speed of motion has presently reached its 'natural limit'. Power tin move with the speed of the electronic signal – then the time required for the movement of its essential ingredients has been reduced to instantaneity. For all practical purposes, power has become truly exterritorial, no longer spring, or even slowed down, by the resistance of space (the advent of cellular telephones may well serve as a symbolic 'last blow' delivered to the dependency on infinite: even the access to a telephone market is unnecessary for a control to be given and seen through to its effect. ^[47]

Consequent to debate well-nigh economic globalization, the comparative analysis of civilizations, and the post-colonial perspective of "culling modernities," Shmuel Eisenstadt introduced the concept of "multiple modernities".^[48] ^[11] Modernity every bit a "plural condition" is the central concept of this sociologic arroyo and perspective, which broadens the definition of "modernity" from exclusively denoting Western European culture to a culturally relativistic definition, thereby: "Modernity is not Westernization, and its key processes and dynamics can exist constitute in all societies".^[11]

Secularization [edit]

Modernity, or the Modernistic Age, is typically defined equally a post-traditional,^{[ citation needed ]} and post-medieval historical period,^[49] 66–67). Central to modernity is emancipation from religion, specifically the hegemony of Christianity (mainly Roman Catholicism), and the consequent secularization. Co-ordinate to writers like Fackenheim and Husserl, modern thought repudiates the Judeo-Christian belief in the Biblical God as a mere relic of superstitious ages.^[50] ^[51] ^{[note ane]} It all started with Descartes' revolutionary methodic doubt, which transformed the concept of truth in the concept of certainty, whose only guarantor is no longer God or the Church building, but Man'south subjective sentence.^[52] ^[53] ^{[note 2]}

Theologians have adapted in different ways to the challenge of modernity. Liberal theology, over perhaps the past 200 years or so, has tried, in various iterations, to adjust, or at least tolerate, modernistic uncertainty in expounding Christian revelation, while Traditionalist Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and fundamentalist Protestant thinkers and clerics accept tried to fight back, denouncing skepticism of every kind. ^[54] ^[55] ^[56] ^[57] ^{[note iii]} Modernity aimed towards "a progressive strength promising to liberate humankind from ignorance and irrationality", ^[58] only as of 2021, Hindu fundamentalism in Republic of india and Islamic fundamentalism particularly in the Middle East remain problematic, meaning that intra-society value conflicts are by no means an intrinsically Christian phenomenon.

Scientific [edit]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and others developed a new arroyo to physics and astronomy which inverse the style people came to think about many things. Copernicus presented new models of the Solar System which no longer placed humanity's home, on Earth, in the centre. Kepler used mathematics to talk over physics and described regularities of nature this manner. Galileo actually made his famous proof of compatible dispatch in freefall using mathematics.^[59]

Francis Salary, especially in his Novum Organum, argued for a new methodological approach. Information technology was an experimental based approach to scientific discipline, which sought no cognition of formal or final causes.^{[ commendation needed ]} Nonetheless, he was no materialist. He also talked of the two books of God, God's Discussion (Scripture) and God's piece of work (nature).^[60] Merely he also added a theme that science should seek to control nature for the sake of humanity, and non seek to understand it just for the sake of understanding. In both these things he was influenced by Machiavelli's earlier criticism of medieval Scholasticism, and his proposal that leaders should aim to control their own fortune.^[59]

Influenced both by Galileo'due south new physics and Bacon, René Descartes argued soon afterward that mathematics and geometry provided a model of how scientific cognition could be built up in small steps. He also argued openly that homo beings themselves could be understood every bit complex machines.^[61]

Isaac Newton, influenced by Descartes, merely also, like Bacon, a proponent of experimentation, provided the archetypal instance of how both Cartesian mathematics, geometry and theoretical deduction on the one hand, and Baconian experimental observation and induction on the other hand, together could lead to great advances in the applied understanding of regularities in nature.^[62] ^[63]

Technological [edit]

One mutual conception of modernity is the condition of Western history since the mid-15th century, or roughly the European development of movable type^[64] and the printing printing.^[65] In this context the "modern" social club is said to develop over many periods, and to be influenced by of import events that represent breaks in the continuity.^[66] ^[67] ^[68]

Creative [edit]

Later modernist political thinking had already go widely known in French republic, Rousseau'due south re-examination of human nature led to a new criticism of the value of reasoning itself which in turn led to a new understanding of less rationalistic human being activities, especially the arts. The initial influence was upon the movements known as German Idealism and Romanticism in the 18th and 19th century. Mod art therefore belongs simply to the later phases of modernity.^[69]

For this reason fine art history keeps the term "modernity" distinct from the terms Modern Historic period and Modernism – as a discrete "term applied to the cultural condition in which the seemingly absolute necessity of innovation becomes a principal fact of life, piece of work, and thought". And modernity in art "is more than simply the land of being modern, or the opposition between sometime and new".^[70]

In the essay "The Painter of Modern Life" (1864), Charles Baudelaire gives a literary definition: "Past modernity I hateful the transitory, the fugitive, the contingent".^[71]

Advancing technological innovation, affecting creative technique and the means of manufacture, changed rapidly the possibilities of fine art and its condition in a apace changing society. Photography challenged the place of the painter and painting. Compages was transformed by the availability of steel for structures.

Theological [edit]

From conservative Protestant theologian Thomas C. Oden's perspective, "modernity" is marked by "four fundamental values":^[72]

"Moral relativism (which says that what is right is dictated by culture, social location, and situation)"
"Autonomous individualism (which assumes that moral say-so comes essentially from within)"
"Narcissistic hedonism (which focuses on egocentric personal pleasance)"
"Reductive naturalism (which reduces what is reliably known to what one can see, hear, and empirically investigate)"

Modernity rejects annihilation "former" and makes "novelty ... a benchmark for truth." This results in a slap-up "phobic response to anything antiquarian." In contrast, "classical Christian consciousness" resisted "novelty".^[72]

Inside Roman Catholicism, Pope Pius IX and Pope Pius Ten claim that Modernism (in a particular definition of the Catholic Church) is a danger to the Christian faith. Pope Pius Ix compiled a Syllabus of Errors published on December eight, 1864, to draw his objections to Modernism.^[73] Pope Pius Ten further elaborated on the characteristics and consequences of Modernism, from his perspective, in an encyclical entitled "Pascendi dominici gregis" (Feeding the Lord's Flock) on September 8, 1907.^[74] Pascendi Dominici Gregis states that the principles of Modernism, taken to a logical conclusion, atomic number 82 to disbelief. The Roman Cosmic Church building was serious enough about the threat of Modernism that information technology required all Roman Cosmic clergy, pastors, confessors, preachers, religious superiors and seminary professors to swear an Oath Against Modernism^[75] from 1910 until this directive was rescinded in 1967, in keeping with the directives of the 2d Vatican Quango.^{[ citation needed ]}

Defined [edit]

Of the bachelor conceptual definitions in sociology, modernity is "marked and defined by an obsession with 'bear witness'," visual culture, and personal visibility.^[76] Generally, the large-scale social integration constituting modernity, involves the:^{[ citation needed ]}

increased motility of appurtenances, capital, people, and data amid formerly discrete populations, and consequent influence beyond the local expanse
increased formal social system of mobile populaces, development of "circuits" on which they and their influence travel, and societal standardization conducive to socio-economical mobility
increased specialization of the segments of society, i.due east., division of labor, and surface area inter-dependency
increased level of excessive stratification in terms of social life of a modernistic homo
Increased state of dehumanisation, dehumanity, unionisation, equally man became embittered well-nigh the negative turn of events which sprouted a growing fear.
human being became a victim of the underlying circumstances presented by the mod world
Increased competitiveness amongst people in the order (survival of the fittest) equally the jungle rule sets in.

See likewise [edit]

Buddhist modernism
Hypermodernity
Industrialization
Islam and modernity
Late modernity
Mass order
Modern Orthodox Judaism
Modernism (Roman Catholicism)
Mythopoeic thought
Postmodernity
Rationalization (sociology)
Second modernity
Traditional social club
Transmodernity
Urbanization

Notes [edit]

^ Quotation from Fackenheim 1957, 272–73:

But there does seem to be a necessary conflict between modern thought and the Biblical belief in revelation. All claims of revelation, modern science and philosophy seem agreed, must exist repudiated, equally mere relics of superstitious ages. ... [to a mod phylosopher] The Biblical God...was a mere myth of foretime ages.

Quotation from Husserl 1931,^{[ page needed ]}:

When, with the beginning of modern times, religious conventionalities was condign more and more than externalized equally a lifeless convention, men of intellect were lifted past a new belief, their great conventionalities in an democratic philosophy and scientific discipline.
^ Quotation from Heidegger 1938^{[ page needed ]}:

The essence of modernity tin be seen in humanity'south freeing itself from the bonds of Centre Ages... Certainly the mod historic period has, as a consequence of the liberation of humanity, introduced subjectivism and indivisualism. ... For up to Descartes... The merits [of a self-supported, unshakable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty] originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church building doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand up upon itself.
^ Quotation from Kilby 2004, 262:

... a cluster of problems surrounding the cess of modernity and of the apologetic job of theology in modernity. Both men [Rahner and Balthasar] were deeply concerned with apologetics, with the question of how to present Christianity in a globe which is no longer well-disposed towards it. ... both idea that modernity raised item problems for being a assertive Christian, and therefore for apologetics.

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b Berman 2010, 15–36.
^ ^a ^b Hroch & Hollan 1998.
^ Goody 2013.
^ Almond, Chodorow & Pearce 1982.
^ Ihde 2009, p. 51.
^ Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought by Kenneth L. Morrison. p. 294.
^ William Schweiker, The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics. 2005. p. 454. (cf., "In modernity, however, much of economical activity and theory seemed to be entirely cut off from religious and upstanding norms, at least in traditional terms. Many see modernistic economic developments as entirely secular.")
^ Kompridis 2006, 32–59.
^ O'Donnell 1979, 235 n9.
^ Hartmann 1974, passim.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Delanty 2007.
^ Toulmin 1992, 3–5. sfn error: no target: CITEREFToulmin1992 (help)
^ Berman 1982, 16–17.
^ Osborne 1992, 25.
^ Laughey 2007, 30.
^ Bauman 1989, ?^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Giddens 1998, ?^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Strauss 1987.
^ Rahe 2006, 1.
^ Kennington 2004, chapt. 4^{[ page needed ]}.
^ ^a ^b ^c Rahe 2006, chapt. 1^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. xi^{[ folio needed ]}.
^ Rahe 2006, chapt. iv^{[ folio needed ]}.
^ Strauss 1958.
^ Rahe 2006, chapt. 5^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Mansfield 1989.
^ Berns 1987.
^ Goldwin 1987.
^ Rosen 1987.
^ Vico 1984, xli.
^ Rousseau 1997, office ane.
^ Hume & 1896 [1739], intro..
^ Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. 10,12^{[ folio needed ]}.
^ Rahe 2006, chapt. six–11^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. viii^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 4^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Regilme 2012, 96.
^ Harriss 2000, 325.
^ Giddens 1998, 94.
^ James 2015, 51–52.
^ Calinescu 1987, 2006.
^ Larraín 2000, 13. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFLarraín2000 (help)
^ ^a ^b Adorno 1973.
^ Bauman 1989.
^ Bauman 2000.
^ Adorno 1973, 210.
^ Bauman 2000, 10.
^ Eisenstadt 2003.
^ Heidegger 1938, 66–67.
^ Fackenheim 1957, 272-73.
^ Husserl 1931,^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Alexander 1931, 484-85.
^ Heidegger 1938,^{[ folio needed ]}.
^ Davies 2004, 133. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFDavies2004 (help)
^ 133^{[ full commendation needed ]}
^ Cassirer 1944, 13–fourteen.
^ 13–14^{[ full citation needed ]}
^ Rosenau 1992, 5.
^ ^a ^b Kennington 2004, chapt. 1,4^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Salary 1828, 53.
^ Kennington 2004, chapt. 6^{[ page needed ]}.
^ d'Alembert & 2009 [1751].
^ Henry 2004.
^ Webster 2008,^{[ page needed ]}.
^ The European Reformations by Carter Lindberg
^ The new Cambridge modernistic history: Companion volume past Peter Shush
^ Plains Indian History and Culture: Essays on Continuity and Modify by John C. Ewers
^ Weber, irrationality, and social order by Alan Sica
^ Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 2,iv^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Smith 2003.
^ Baudelaire 1964, 13.
^ ^a ^b Hall 1990.
^ Pius IX 1864.
^ Pius X 1907.
^ Pius X 1910.
^ Leppert 2004, 19.

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